शब्दकोश
शब्दकोशांचे पठीत अनेक प्रकार असतात. जसे की ऐतिहासिक शब्दांचा कोश. शेती विषयक शब्दकोश
- एकभाषिक शब्दकोश - भाषेतील शब्दांचे त्या भाषेतच अर्थ असतो. जसे की मराठी –मराठी शब्दकोश.
- द्विभाषी शब्दकोश - एका भाषेतील शब्दांचे दुसऱ्या भाषेत अर्थ असतो. जसे की मराठी – जर्मन शब्दकोश.
हिंदी-मराठी, मराठी-हिंदी, गुजराती-मराठी, कन्नड-मराठी, मराठी-कन्नड, तमिळ-मराठी
निरागसता
संपादनव्याख्या
संपादन
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ह्या लेखाचा/विभागाचा इंग्रजी किंवा अमराठी भाषेतून मराठी भाषेत भाषांतर करावयाचे बाकी आहे. अनुवाद करण्यास आपलाही सहयोग हवा आहे. ऑनलाईन शब्दकोश आणि इतर सहाय्या करिता भाषांतर प्रकल्पास भेट द्या. कृपया, पुढील भाषांतर संकेतांचे पालन आवर्जून करा.
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एक प्रकाशन, सहसा पुस्तकाच्या स्वरूपात, जे शब्दांची क्रमबद्ध यादी (सामान्यत: वर्णक्रमानुसार) देते, सामान्यत: त्यांचा अर्थ स्पष्ट करते आणि काहीवेळा व्युत्पत्ती, वापर, भाषांतरे आणि शब्दाशी संबंधित इतर बाबींची माहिती असते. काही शब्दकोष एकापेक्षा जास्त भाषांमधील शब्दांची यादी करतात आणि/किंवा एकापेक्षा जास्त भाषांमध्ये भाषांतर देतात.
अक्षरात काय असते? शब्दकोष म्हणजे त्यांच्या व्याख्यांसह शब्दांची सूची, त्यांच्या ग्लिफसह वर्णांची सूची किंवा इतर भाषांमधील संबंधित शब्दांसह शब्दांची सूची. काही भाषांमध्ये, शब्द वेगवेगळ्या स्वरूपात दिसू शकतात, परंतु बहुतेक शब्दकोषांमध्ये मुख्य शब्द किंवा हेडवर्ड म्हणून फक्त लेमा फॉर्म दिसून येतो. अनेक शब्दकोश देखील उच्चार माहिती देतात; व्याकरणविषयक माहिती; शब्द व्युत्पत्ती, इतिहास किंवा व्युत्पत्ती; चित्रे; वापर मार्गदर्शन; आणि वाक्ये किंवा वाक्यांमधील उदाहरणे. शब्दकोश सामान्यतः पुस्तकाच्या स्वरूपात आढळतात, परंतु इलेक्ट्रॉनिक PDA किंवा सामान्य हेतू असलेल्या संगणकावरून सॉफ्टवेर चालवल्यामुळे अधिकाधिक शब्दकोश तयार केले जातात. बहुतेक शब्दकोश कोशकारांद्वारे तयार केले जातात.
Lexicography
संपादनThe art and craft of writing dictionaries is called lexicography.
The Erya, from the early 3rd century BC, was the first Chinese language dictionary. The book organized Chinese characters by semantic groups. The intention of this dictionary was to explain the true meaning and interpretation of words in the context of older ancient texts.
One of the earliest dictionaries known, and which is still extant today in an abridged form, was written in Latin during the reign of the emperor Augustus. It is known by the शीर्षक De Significatu Verborum ("On the meaning of words") and was originally compiled by Verrius Flaccus. It was twice abridged in succeeding centuries, first by Sextus Pompeius Festus, and then by Paul the Deacon. Verrius Flaccus' dictionary was an abridged list of difficult or antiquated words, whose usage was illustrated by quotations from early Roman authors.
The word "dictionary" comes from neoclassical Latin, dictio, meaning simply "word".
The first true English dictionary was Robert Cawdrey's Table Alphabeticall of 1604, although it only included 3,000 words and the definitions it contained were little more than synonyms. The first one to be at all comprehensive was Thomas Blount's dictionary Glossographia of 1656. Though many believe that Samuel Johnson's famous and more complete dictionary of 1755 was the first dictionary it was predated by Blount, as well as Kersey and Bailey.
In 1806, Noah Webster's dictionary was published by the G&C Merriam Company of Springfield, Massachusetts which still publishes Merriam-Webster dictionaries, but the term Webster's is considered generic and can be used by any dictionary.
The most complete dictionary of the English language is the ऑक्सफर्ड इंग्लिश डिक्शनरी. The first edition was properly begun in 1860 and was completed in 1928, by which time a supplement that took an additional five years to complete was already necessary.
The largest dictionary in the world is "het Woordenboek der Nederlansche Taal (WNT)" (the Dictionary of the Dutch language). It took 134 years to create the dictionary (1864 - 1998). It consists of approximately 400,000 words on 45805 pages in 92000 columns.[१]
Radha
संपादनToday, dictionaries of most languages with alphabetic and syllabic writing systems list words in lexicographic order, usually alphabetical or some analogous phonetic system.
In many languages, words are grouped together according to their true or normal origin ("root"), and these roots are arranged alphabetically. If English dictionaries were arranged like this, the words "import", "export", "support", "report", "porter", "port", "important" and "transportation" would all be listed under "port". This method has the advantage that all words of a common origin are listed together, but the disadvantage is that one has to know how to recognise all prefixes of a word before one can look it up. Some Hebrew, Sanskrit, and Arabic dictionaries work this way.
While most of Japanese and Korean dictionaries are arraged according to their phonetic writing (kana syllabic script for the Japanese, and hangul alphabet for the Korean), the main body of modern Chinese dictionaries mostly is still ordered according to the Chinese logographic writing system; but most Chinese dictionaries have an appendix ordering entries in accordance to the latin alphabet with the pinyin spelling, in order to allow readers to find words written in logograms whose pronunciation is not known. Chinese characters may be sorted according to one of many schemes based on the component parts of the characters (radicals, number of strokes, overall shape).
The first English alphabetical dictionary came out in 1604 and alphabetical ordering was a rarity until the 18th century. Before alphabetical listings, dictionaries were organized by topic, i.e. a list of animals all together in one topic. retirement- appoint
Coverage
संपादनDictionaries vary widely in size and scope. A dictionary that attempts to cover as many words from a particular speech community as possible is called a maximizing dictionary (e.g. the ऑक्सफर्ड इंग्लिश डिक्शनरी), whereas a dictionary that attempts to cover only a limited selection of words from a speech community is called a minimizing dictionary (e.g. a dictionary containing the 2000 most frequently used words in the English language).
Special-purpose dictionaries
संपादनThere are many different types of dictionaries, including bilingual, multilingual, historical, biographical, and geographical dictionaries.
Bilingual dictionaries
संपादनIn bilingual dictionaries, each entry has translations of words in another language. For example, in a Japanese-English dictionary, the entry tsuki has a corresponding English word, moon. In dictionaries between English and a language using a non-Roman script, entry words in the non-English language may be either printed and sorted in the native order, or romanized and sorted in Roman alphabetical order.
Specialised dictionaries
संपादनSpecialised dictionaries (also referred to as technical dictionaries) focus on linguistic and factual matters relating to specific subject fields. A specialised dictionary may have a relatively broad coverage, e.g. a picture dictionary, in that it covers several subject fields such as science and technology (a multi-field dictionary), or their coverage may be more narrow, in that they cover one particular subject field such as law (a single-field dictionary) or even a specific sub-field such as contract law (a sub-field dictionary). Specialised dictionaries may be maximizing dictionaries, i.e. they attempt to achieve comprehensive coverage of the terms in the subject field concerned, or they may be minimizing dictionaries, i.e. they attempt to cover only a limited number of the specialised vocabulary concerned. Generally, multi-field dictionaries tend to be minimizing, whereas single-field and sub-field dictionaries tend to be maximizing. हे सुद्धा पहा LSP dictionary.
Character dictionaries
संपादनIn East Asian languages, a dictionary form for Han (Chinese) characters has developed, called Kan-wa jiten (literally 'Han-Japanese dictionary') in Japanese and Okpyeon ('Jewel Book') in Korean. Each entry has one Chinese character with information about stroke count and order, readings (pronunciations), and a list of words using that character.
These characters are not arbitrary; they are composed of simpler characters, one of which is called the "radical", which indicates its category. The ordering of the characters in the dictionary is by radical, in order of the number of strokes in the radical. Characters using that radical are then ordered by the number of strokes added to the radical. To fit more strokes in a character, radicals can come in simplified variants, which have to be learned; for example, the character for "dog" is altered when it is used as the radical of the character for "cat".
Data dictionaries
संपादनData sets and databases collected and utilized for statistical analyses are typically accompanied by, or able to be used to generate, a list of all variable names used within the data set, as well as matters such as their meaning, values, level of measurement, length, decimal allowances, and type (numeric, string, etc.)
Glossaries
संपादनAnother variant is the glossary, an alphabetical list of defined terms in a specialised field, such as medicine or science. The simplest dictionary, a defining dictionary, provides a core glossary of the simplest meanings of the simplest concepts. From these, other concepts can be explained and defined, in particular for those who are first learning a language. In English, the commercial defining dictionaries typically include only one or two meanings of under 2000 words. With these, the rest of English, and even the 4000 most common English idioms and metaphors, can be defined.
Pronunciation key
संपादनDictionaries often provide a pronunciation key, which spells the defined word in a phonetic alphabet. For example, the definition for Dictionary might be followed by the phonetic spelling: (dǐk'shə-něr'ē). There also are other ones like (th'en). साचा:Sectionstub
Variations between dictionaries
संपादनPrescription and description
संपादनDictionary makers apply two basic philosophies to the defining of words: prescriptive or descriptive. Noah Webster, intent on forging a distinct identity for the American language, altered spellings and accentuated differences in meaning and pronunciation of some words. This is why American English now uses the spelling color while the rest of the English-speaking world prefers colour. (Similarly, British English subsequently underwent a few spelling changes that did not affect American English; see further at American and British English spelling differences.) Large 20th-century dictionaries such as the ऑक्सफर्ड इंग्लिश डिक्शनरी (OED) and Webster's Third are descriptive, and attempt to describe the actual use of words.
While descriptivists argue that prescriptivism is an unnatural attempt to dictate usage or curtail change, prescriptivists argue that to indiscriminately document "improper" or "inferior" usages sanctions those usages by default and causes language to "deteriorate". Although the debate can become very heated, only a small number of controversial words are usually affected. But the softening of usage notations, from the previous edition, for two words, ain't and regardless, out of over 450,000 in Webster's Third in 1961, was enough to provoke outrage among many with prescriptivist leanings, who branded the dictionary as "permissive."
The prescriptive/descriptive issue has been given so much consideration in modern times that most dictionaries of English apply the descriptive method to definitions, while additionally informing readers of attitudes which may influence their choices on words often considered vulgar, offensive, erroneous, or easily confused. Merriam-Webster is subtle, only adding italicized notations such as, sometimes offensive or nonstand (nonstandard.) American Heritage goes further, discussing issues separately in numerous "usage notes." Encarta provides similar notes, but is more prescriptive, offering warnings and admonitions against the use of certain words considered by many to be offensive or illiterate, such as, "an offensive term for..." or "a taboo term meaning..."
Because of the broad use of dictionaries, and their acceptance by many as language authorities, their treatment of the language does affect usage to some degree, even the most descriptive dictionaries providing conservative continuity. In the long run, however, usage primarily determines the meanings of words in English, and the language is being changed and created every day. As Jorge Luis Borges says in the prologue to "El otro, el mismo": "It is often forgotten that (dictionaries) are artificial repositories, put together well after the languages they define. The roots of language are irrational and of a magical nature."
Other variations
संपादनSince words and their meanings develop over time, dictionary entries are organized to reflect these changes. Dictionaries may either list meanings in the historical order in which they appeared, or may list meanings in order of popularity and most common use.
Dictionaries also differ in the degree to which they are encyclopedic, providing considerable background information, illustrations, and the like, or linguistic, concentrating on etymology, nuances of meaning, and quotations demonstrating usage.
Any dictionary has been designed to fulfil one or more functions. The dictionary functions chosen by the maker(s) of the dictionary provide the basis for all lexicographic decisions, from the selection of entry words, over the choice of information types, to the choice of place for the information (e.g. in an article or in an appendix). There are two main types of function. The communication-oriented functions comprise text reception (understanding), text production, text revision, and translation. The knowledge-oriented functions deal with situations where the dictionary is used for acquiring specific knowledge about a particular matter, and for acquiring general knowledge about something. The optimal dictionary is one that contains information directly relevant for the needs of the users relating to one or more of these functions. It is important that the information is presented in a way that keeps the lexicographic information costs at a minimum.
Trivia
संपादन- The Irish mathematical physicist, J. L. Synge, created a game, Circ, to emphasize the circular reasoning implicit in the defining process of any standard dictionary.
- The word 'set' has the longest definition in a standard dictionary.
- The longest word in the English dictionary is pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanoconiosis (45 letters) this is a lung disease caused by inhaling silica dust.
English without `e'
संपादनOnce Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar jokingly asked Madhusudan Dutt, "As you are a Master in English, can you make a sentence without using a single 'E'?"
"I doubt I can. It’s a major part of many many words. Omitting it, is as hard as making muffins without flour. It’s as hard as spitting without saliva, napping without a pillow, driving a train without tracks, sailing to Russia without a boat, washing your hands without soap. And, anyway, what would I gain? An award? A cash bonus? Bragging rights? Why should I strain my brain? It’s not worth it."
Step-by-step improvement in English Alphabets - suggested by Mark Twain
संपादनFor example, in Year 1 that useless letter "c" would be dropped to be replased either by "k" or "s", and likewise "x" would no longer be part of the alphabet.
The only kase in which "c" would be retained would be the "ch" formation, which will be dealt with later.
Year 2 might reform "w" spelling, so that "which" and "one" would take the same konsonant, wile Year 3 might well abolish "y" replasing it with "i" and iear 4 might fiks the "g/j" anomali wonse and for all.
Jenerally, then, the improvement would kontinue iear bai iear with iear 5 doing awai with useless double konsonants, and iears 6-12 or so modifaiing vowlz and the rimeining voist and unvoist konsonants.
Bai iear 15 or sou, it wud fainali bi posibl tu meik ius ov thi ridandant letez "c", "y" and "x"—bai now jast a memori in the maindz ov ould doderez—tu riplais "ch", "sh", and "th" rispektivli.
Fainali, xen, aafte sam 20 iers ov orxogrefkl riform, wi wud hev a lojikl, kohirnt speling in ius xrewawt xe Ingliy-spiking werld.
List of major English dictionaries
संपादनFor languages other than modern English, see the article about that language. हे सुद्धा पहा articles such as Japanese dictionaries.
List of major online English dictionaries
संपादन- Wiktionary, A collaborative project run by the Wikimedia Foundation + List of online dictionaries
- AskOxford Archived 2007-06-07 at the Wayback Machine., The Compact Oxford English Dictionary
- Bartleby, American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language Fourth Edition
- Cambridge, Cambridge Dictionaries Online
- Merriam-Webster, The Merriam-Webster dictionary
- Oxford, Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary
- Collins, Collins English dictionary and thesaurus
हे सुद्धा पहा
संपादन
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References
संपादन- Manual of Specialised Lexicography, Henning Bergenholtz/Sven Tarp (eds.), Benjamins Publishing, 1995
- Diction and Stylistics of the 21st century, Darwin, Charles Schickelgruber Maxis (ed.), Jackson Publishing, 2001
- The Bilingual LSP Dictionary, Sandro Nielsen, Gunter Narr Verlag 1994
- Dictionaries, The Art and Craft of Lexicography, Sidney I. Landau, Simon & Schuster, 1998, hardcover, ISBN 0-684-18096-0
- The Professor and the Madman, A Tale of Murder, Insanity, and the Making of the Oxford English Dictionary, Simon Winchester, HarperPerennial, New York, 1998, trade paperback, ISBN 0-06-017596-6. (published in the UK as The Surgeon of Crowthorne)
- "A Brief History of English Lexicography". 2008-03-09 रोजी मूळ पान पासून संग्रहित. 2007-01-22 रोजी पाहिले.