"शब्दार्थशास्त्र" च्या विविध आवृत्यांमधील फरक

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ओळ १:
{{भाषांतर}}
{{भाषाशास्त्र}}
'''Semantics''' is the study of meaning, usually in [[language]]. The word "semantics" itself denotes a range of ideas, from the popular to the highly technical. It is often used in ordinary language to denote a problem of understanding that comes down to word selection or connotation. This problem of understanding has been the subject of many formal inquiries, over a long period of time. The word is derived from the [[Greek language|Greek]] word ''σημαντικός'' (''semantikos''), "significant",<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2393797|title=Semantikos |author= Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott | ''[[A Greek-English Lexicon]]'', at [[Perseus Digital Library]]}}</ref> from ''σημαίνω'' (''semaino''), "to signify, to indicate" and that from ''σήμα'' (''sema''), "sign, mark, token".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0058%3Aentry%3D%2329446|title=Semaino, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''An Intermediate Greek-English Lexicon'', at Perseus}}</ref> In [[linguistics]], it is the study of interpretation of signs or symbols as used by [[Agent (grammar)|agentagents]]s or [[community|communities]] within particular circumstances and contexts.<ref name=Neurath1955/> Within this view, sounds, facial expressions, body language, [[proxemics]] have semantic (meaningful) content, and each has several branches of study. In written language, such things as paragraph structure and punctuation have semantic content; in other forms of language, there is other semantic content.<ref name=Neurath1955>{{cite book|
author = [[Otto Neurath]] (Editor), [[Rudolf Carnap]] (Editor), Charles F. W. Morris (Editor)|
title = [[International Encyclopedia of Unified Science]] |
ओळ १४:
The discipline of Semantics is distinct from [[General semantics|Alfred Korzybski's General Semantics]], which is a system for looking at the semantic reactions of the whole human organism in its environment to some event, symbolic or otherwise.
 
== भाषाशास्त्र Linguistics ==
{{Cleanup|date=August 2008}}
In [[linguistics]], '''semantics''' is the subfield that is devoted to the study of meaning, as inherent at the levels of words, phrases, sentences, and larger units of [[discourse]] (referred to as ''texts'').
ओळ २८:
 
Despite its elegance, [[Montague grammar]] was limited by the context-dependent variability in word sense, and led to several attempts at incorporating context, such as:
* [[situation semantics]] ('80s): Truth-values are incomplete, they get assigned based on context
* [[generative lexicon]] ('90s): categories (types) are incomplete, and get assigned based on context
 
=== The dynamic turn in semantics ===
In the [[Noam Chomsky|Chomskian]] tradition in linguistics there was no mechanism for the learning of semantic relations, and the [[Psychological nativism|nativist]] view considered all semantic notions as inborn. Thus, even novel concepts were proposed to have been dormant in some sense. This traditional view was also unable to address many issues such as [[metaphor]] or associative meanings, and [[semantic change]], where meanings within a linguistic community change over time, and [[qualia]] or subjective experience. Another issue not addressed by the nativist model was how perceptual cues are combined in thought, e.g. in [[mental rotation]].<ref>Barsalou, L. (1999). Perceptual Symbol Systems. ''Behavioral and Brain Sciences'' 22(4)</ref>
 
ओळ ५५:
* factors external to language, i.e. language is not a set of labels stuck on things, but "a toolbox, the importance of whose elements lie in the way they function rather than their attachments to things."<ref name=Peregrin:2003/> This view reflects the position of the later [[Wittgenstein]] and his famous ''game'' example, and is related to the positions of [[Willard Van Orman Quine|Quine]], [[Donald Davidson (philosopher)|Davidson]], and others.
 
A concrete example of the latter phenomenon is semantic [[underspecification]] &mdash; meanings are not complete without some elements of context. To take an example of a single word, "red", its meaning in a phrase such as ''red book'' is similar to many other usages, and can be viewed as compositional.<ref name=Gardenfors:2000>
{{cite book |
last = Gärdenfors | first = Peter | authorlink = Peter Gärdenfors|
ओळ ७७:
An attempt to defend a system based on propositional meaning for semantic underspecification can be found in the [[Generative Lexicon]] model of [[James Pustejovsky]], who extends contextual operations (based on type shifting) into the lexicon. Thus meanings are generated on the fly based on finite context.
 
=== Prototype theory प्रतिकृती सिद्धांत ===
Another set of concepts related to fuzziness in semantics is based on
[[Prototype Theory|prototypes]]. The work of [[Eleanor Rosch]] and [[George Lakoff]]
ओळ ८८:
Systems of categories are not objectively "out there" in the world but are
rooted in people's experience. These categories evolve as [[learning theory (education)|learned]] concepts
of the world &mdash; meaning is not an objective truth, but a
subjective construct, learned from experience, and language arises
out of the "grounding of our
ओळ ११०:
-->
 
== संगणक विज्ञान ==
In [[संगणक विज्ञान]], where it is considered as an application of [[mathematical logic]], semantics reflects the meaning of programs or functions.
 
ओळ १४१:
The [[Semantic Web]] refers to the extension of the [[World Wide Web]] through the embedding of additional semantic [[metadata]]; s.a. [[Web Ontology Language]] (OWL).
 
== मानसशास्त्र Psychology ==
In [[psychology]], ''[[semantic memory]]'' is memory for meaning, in other words, the aspect of memory that preserves only the ''gist'', the general significance, of remembered experience, while [[episodic memory]] is memory for the ephemeral details, the individual features, or the unique particulars of experience. Word meaning is measured by the company they keep; the relationships among words themselves in a [[semantic network]]. In a network created by people analyzing their understanding of the word (such as [[Wordnet]]) the links and decomposition structures of the network are few in number and kind; and include "part of", "kind of", and similar links. In automated [[ontologies]] the links are computed vectors without explicit meaning. Various automated technologies are being developed to compute the meaning of words: [[latent semantic indexing]] and [[support vector machines]] as well as [[natural language processing]], [[neural networks]] and [[predicate calculus]] techniques.
 
== हे सुद्धा पहाSee also ==
{{Portal|Linguistics|ParseTree.svg}}
 
=== शब्दार्थशास्त्रातील महत्वपूर्ण योगदान Major contributors in the field of Semantics ===
 
{{MultiCol}}
ओळ १८३:
{{EndMultiCol}}
 
=== भाषाशास्त्र आणि शब्दार्थशास्त्र Linguistics and semiotics ===
 
{{MultiCol}}
ओळ २१५:
{{EndMultiCol}}
 
=== तर्कशास्त्र आणि गणित ===
* [[Formal logic]]
* [[Game semantics]]
ओळ २२५:
* [[Truth-value semantics]]
 
=== संगणक विज्ञान ===
* [[Formal semantics of programming languages]]
* [[Knowledge representation]]
ओळ २३९:
* [[Semantic Web]]
== लेखात प्रयूक्त संज्ञा ==
=== शब्दाचा विशेष संदर्भ/अर्थ छटा ===
 
{| class="wikitable"
ओळ २४८:
|}
 
== इंग्रजी मराठी <!--विकि--> संज्ञा ==
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| '''Semantics''' is the study of meaning, usually in [[language]]. The word "semantics" itself denotes a range of ideas, from the popular to the highly technical. It is often used in ordinary language to denote a problem of understanding that comes down to word selection or connotation. This problem of understanding has been the subject of many formal inquiries, over a long period of time. The word is derived from the [[Greek language|Greek]] word ''σημαντικός'' (''semantikos''), "significant",<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2393797|title=Semantikos |author= Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott | ''[[A Greek-English Lexicon]]'', at [[Perseus Digital Library]]}}</ref> from ''σημαίνω'' (''semaino''), "to signify, to indicate" and that from ''σήμα'' (''sema''), "sign, mark, token".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0058%3Aentry%3D%2329446|title=Semaino, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''An Intermediate Greek-English Lexicon'', at Perseus}}</ref> In [[linguistics]], it is the study of interpretation of signs or symbols as used by [[Agent (grammar)|agentagents]]s or [[community|communities]] within particular circumstances and contexts.<ref name=Neurath1955/> Within this view, sounds, facial expressions, body language, [[proxemics]] have semantic (meaningful) content, and each has several branches of study. In written language, such things as paragraph structure and punctuation have semantic content; in other forms of language, there is other semantic content.<ref name=Neurath1955>{{cite book|
author = [[Otto Neurath]] (Editor), [[Rudolf Carnap]] (Editor), Charles F. W. Morris (Editor)|
title = [[International Encyclopedia of Unified Science]] |
ओळ २७८:
|-
| Despite its elegance, [[Montague grammar]] was limited by the context-dependent variability in word sense, and led to several attempts at incorporating context, such as:
* [[situation semantics]] ('80s): Truth-values are incomplete, they get assigned based on context
* [[generative lexicon]] ('90s): categories (types) are incomplete, and get assigned based on context || मराठी
|-
| In the [[Noam Chomsky|Chomskian]] tradition in linguistics there was no mechanism for the learning of semantic relations, and the [[Psychological nativism|nativist]] view considered all semantic notions as inborn. Thus, even novel concepts were proposed to have been dormant in some sense. This traditional view was also unable to address many issues such as [[metaphor]] or associative meanings, and [[semantic change]], where meanings within a linguistic community change over time, and [[qualia]] or subjective experience. Another issue not addressed by the nativist model was how perceptual cues are combined in thought, e.g. in [[mental rotation]].<ref>Barsalou, L. (1999). Perceptual Symbol Systems. ''Behavioral and Brain Sciences'' 22(4)</ref>|| मराठी
ओळ २९१:
|-
|
A concrete example of the latter phenomenon is semantic [[underspecification]] &mdash; meanings are not complete without some elements of context. To take an example of a single word, "red", its meaning in a phrase such as ''red book'' is similar to many other usages, and can be viewed as compositional.<ref name=Gardenfors:2000>|| मराठी
|-
| However, the colours implied in phrases such as "red wine" (very dark), and "red hair" (coppery), or "red soil", or "red skin" are very different. Indeed, these colours by themselves would not be called "red" by native speakers. These instances are contrastive, so "red wine" is so called only in comparison with the other kind of wine (which also is not "white" for the same reasons). This view goes back to [[Ferdinand de Saussure|de Saussure]]:
ओळ ३०८:
| Systems of categories are not objectively "out there" in the world but are
rooted in people's experience. These categories evolve as [[learning theory (education)|learned]] concepts
of the world &mdash; meaning is not an objective truth, but a
subjective construct, learned from experience, and language arises
out of the "grounding of our
ओळ ४३५:
|}
 
== संदर्भ ==
{{Reflist|2}}
 
== बाह्य दुवे ==
{{Wiktionarypar|semantics}}
{{Commonscat|Semantics}}
ओळ ४४९:
{{philosophy of language}}
 
[[Categoryवर्ग:Grammar]]
[[Categoryवर्ग:Semantics]]
[[Categoryवर्ग:Social philosophy]]
[[Categoryवर्ग:Greek loanwords]]
 
[[af:Semantiek]]
[[ar:علم الدلالةالسيمية]]
[[ast:Semántica]]
[[be-x-old:Сэмантыка]]